Greek language

 ( Graeco-phrygian ) 

Greek (, ; , ) is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), southern Albania, and other regions of the Balkans, Caucasus, the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor, and the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system is the Greek alphabet, which has been used for approximately 2,800 years;

Bernard Comrie (1987). 9781317290490, Routledge. . ISBN 9781317290490

previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary.

Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez (2025). 9789004128354, Brill. ISBN 9789004128354

The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of Homer, ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Bible was also originally written in Greek.Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p. 52.Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p. 9. Together with the Latin language texts and traditions of the Roman world, the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of Classics.

During antiquity, Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world.

It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek. In its Modern Greek, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora.

Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary.

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History Greek has been spoken in the Balkans since around the 3rd millennium BC,; . or possibly earlier.; . The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded Modern language.

A. Tulloch (2025). 9789888390649, Hong Kong University Press. . ISBN 9789888390649

Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages.

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Periods The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:

• Proto-Greek: the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age.
• Mycenaean Greek: the language of the Mycenaean Greece. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards.
• Ancient Greek: in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic Greece and Classical Greece periods of the Ancient Greece. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek fell into disuse in Western Europe in the Middle Ages but remained officially in use in the Byzantine Empire world and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with the Fall of Constantinople and Greeks migration to western Europe.
• Koine Greek (also known as Hellenistic Greek): The fusion of Ionian Greek with Attic Greek, the dialect of Classical Athens, began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became a lingua franca across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East. Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of Alexander the Great; after the Hellenistic colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from Egypt to the fringes of India. Due to the widespread use of the Greek language during this period, a set of rules had to be established for the proper dissemination of the language. It is at this point that the term Hellenism (Ἑλληνισμός) first appears. Hellenism was used by the grammarians and Strabo to denote "correct Greek".
  (2025). 9780754665250, Ashgate. . ISBN 9780754665250
  After the Roman Republic conquest of Greece, an unofficial Multilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became the first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek because the Twelve Apostles used this form of the language to spread Christianity. Because it was the original language of the New Testament, and the Old Testament was translated into it as the Septuagint, that variety of Koine Greek may be referred to as New Testament Greek or sometimes Biblical Greek.
• Medieval Greek (also known as Byzantine Greek): the continuation of Koine Greek up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Medieval Greek is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine.
• Modern Greek (also known as Neo-Hellenic): Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it.

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Diglossia In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia: the coexistence of vernacular and archaising written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarisation between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Demotic Greek, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in the early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek, used today for all official purposes and in education.

Mackridge Peter (1985). 9780198157700, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198157700

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Historical unity The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasised. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic Greek than 12-century Middle English is to Modern English"..

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Geographic distribution Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near the Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey, though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizeable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the Greek Americans, Australia, Greek Canadians, South Africa, Greek Chilean, Greek Brazilians, Greek Argentines, Russia, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and throughout the European Union, especially in Germany.

Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, in what are today Southern Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya; in the area of the Black Sea, in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia, Monoikos, and Mainake. It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms, for most of their history.

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Official status

Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (alongside Turkish language) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English language). states that The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated Northern Cyprus, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus, San Diego Linguistics Papers 2: pp. 25–38 27. Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages. Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë.

Enver Bytyçi (2025). 9781527579095, Cambridge Scholars Publishing. . ISBN 9781527579095

It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary, Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.

Derya Bayır (2025). 9781409472544, Ashgate Publishing. . ISBN 9781409472544

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Characteristics

The phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it.

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Phonology

Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details):

• replacement of the pitch accent with a stress accent.
• simplification of the system of and : loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards (iotacism).
• development of the voicelessness aspirated stop consonant and to the voiceless fricatives and , respectively; the similar development of to may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with φ, Theta, and χ).
• development of the voiced plosives , , and to their voiced fricative counterparts (later ), , and .

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Morphology

In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding. and a rich system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the Genitive case). The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically-formed future, and and the optative mood. Many have been replaced by periphrastic (analytical) forms.

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Nouns and adjectives

Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for grammatical case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun.

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Verbs

The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for:

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Syntax

Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.

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Vocabulary

Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks,. some documented in Linear B; they include a large number of Greek . The form and meaning of many words have changed. (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian, and Ottoman Turkish. During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian, South Slavic (Macedonian/Bulgarian) and Eastern Romance languages (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian).

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Loanwords in other languages

Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and morpheme continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. Together with Scientific Latin, they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin..

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Classification

Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian, which, by most accounts, was a distinct dialect of Greek itself.;

Emilio Crespo (2025). 9783110530810, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110530810

Miltiades B. Hatzopoulos (2025). 9783110530810, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110530810

; Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical , with some being exclusive between them.: "This question is of course only just separable from the question of which languages within Indo-European are most closely related to Phrygian, which has also been hotly debated. A turning point in this debate was Kortlandt's (1988) demonstration on the basis of shared sound changes that Thraco-Armenian had separated from Phrygian and other originally Balkan languages at an early stage. The consensus has now returned to regarding Greek as the closest relative.": "To the best of our current knowledge, Phrygian was closely related to Greek. This affirmation is consistent with the vision offered by Neumann (1988: 23), Brixhe (2006) and Ligorio and Lubotsky (2018: 1816) and with many observations given by ancient authors. Both languages share 34 of the 36 features considered in this paper, some of them of great significance:... The available data suggest that Phrygian and Greek coexisted broadly from pre-historic to historic times, and both belong to a common linguistic area (Brixhe 2006: 39–44)." Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated.: "With the current state of our knowledge, we can affirm that Phrygian is closely related to Greek. This is not a surprising conclusion: ancient sources and modern scholars agree that Phrygians did not live far from Greece in pre-historic times. Moreover, the last half century of scientific study of Phrygian has approached both languages and developed the hypothesis of a Proto-Greco-Phrygian language, to the detriment to other theories like Phrygio-Armenian or Thraco-Phrygian.": "Phrygian is most closely related to Greek. The two languages share a few unique innovations,... It is therefore very likely that both languages emerged from a single language, which was spoken in the Balkans at the end of the third millennium BCE."

Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) or the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found.; ; ; In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan, and Greek has a central position in it.;

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Writing system

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Linear B

Linear B, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary, which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A, has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).

J. T. Hooker (1980). 9780906515693, Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 9780906515693

The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek, is the earliest known form of Greek.

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Cypriot syllabary

Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.

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Greek alphabet

Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic Greek variant, introduced for writing classical Attic Greek in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill.

The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (capital letter) and lowercase (lower case) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word:

Omega

ω

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Diacritics

In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritic: three different accent marks (acute accent, grave accent, and circumflex), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (rough breathing and smooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis, used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in penmanship saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography.

After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified Greek diacritics (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek.

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Punctuation

In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia (άνω τελεία). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ( ó,ti, 'whatever') from ότι ( óti, 'that').

Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.

Matthews Peter Hugoe (2014). 9780199675128, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199675128

Boustrophedon, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek.

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Latin alphabet

Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script, especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics. The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of the Frankish Empire). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios. Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications..

The Latin script is nowadays used by the Griko dialect communities of Southern Italy.

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Hebrew alphabet

The Yevanic dialect was written by Romaniote Jews and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet.

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Arabic alphabet

In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado, some Cretan Muslim wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet. The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina. This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant (Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria).HMML Hill Museum & Manuscript Library (27 July 2024). This month, "Greek Aljamiado" (i.e., Greek written in Arabic script) became one of the more than 90 languages identified in HMML's online Reading Room ( vhmml.org). Greek Aljamiado was a common phenomenon among Byzantine-rite Christians in Arabic-speaking communities, but has been little studied. So far, 84 examples of Greek Aljamiado have been identified in HMML's collections of Christian manuscripts digitized in Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria. Cataloging by HMML staff and associates makes these manuscripts easier to find, and supports scholars in their research of the extent and purposes of Greek Aljamiado usage. Pictured: Greek Aljamiado is written on the left page of this manuscript, in the collection of the Ordre Basilien Alepin in Jūniyah, Lebanon. View in Reading Room (OBA 00256): www.vhmml.org/readingRoom/view/120512 Image Story. Facebook. [3] This usage is sometimes called aljamiado, as when are written in the Arabic alphabet.

Phokion Kotzageorgis (2025). 9780253353610, Indiana University Press. . ISBN 9780253353610

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Example text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek:

Όλοι οι άνθρωποι γεννιούνται ελεύθεροι και ίσοι στην αξιοπρέπεια και τα δικαιώματα. Είναι προικισμένοι με λογική και συνείδηση, και οφείλουν να συμπεριφέρονται μεταξύ τους με πνεύμα αδελφοσύνης.

Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet:

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

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See also

• List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes

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Notes

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Footnotes

• Margaret Alexiou (1982). 9780389202912, Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780389202912
• (2025). 9781902937335, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. ISBN 9781902937335
• George Babiniotis (1992). 9789027277473, John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 9789027277473
• Robert Stephen Paul Beekes (2025). 9789004174184, Brill. . ISBN 9789004174184
• Robert Browning (1983). 9780521234887, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9780521234887
• Vladimir Ivanov Georgiev (1981). 9789535172611, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. . ISBN 9789535172611
• Hans J. Holm (2025). 9783540782469, Springer-Verlag. ISBN 9783540782469
• J.T. Hooker (1976). 9780710083791, Routledge & Kegan Paul. . ISBN 9780710083791
• Ian Jeffries (2025). 9780415236713, Routledge (Taylor & Francis). . ISBN 9780415236713
• (2025). 9783110542431, De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN 9783110542431
• (2025). 9781108499798, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9781108499798
• Colin Renfrew (1973). 9780715605806, Gerald Duckworth and Company Limited. ISBN 9780715605806
• Colin Renfrew (2025). 9783825314491, Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. ISBN 9783825314491
• Colin Renfrew (1990). 9780521386753, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9780521386753
• Manfred Scheler (1977). 9783503012503, E. Schmidt. . ISBN 9783503012503
• Konstantinos Tsitselikis (2025). 9789004244740, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9789004244740

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Further reading

• W. Sidney Allen (1968). 9780521206266, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9780521206266
• (1997). 9780415100021, Routledge. . ISBN 9780415100021
• Geoffrey Horrocks (1997). 9780582307094, Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited). . ISBN 9780582307094
• Richard M. Krill (1990). 9780865162419, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. . ISBN 9780865162419
• James P. Mallory (1997). 9781884964985, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. ISBN 9781884964985
• Brian Newton (1972). 9780521084970, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9780521084970
• Andrew L. Sihler (1995). 9780195083453, Oxford University Press. . ISBN 9780195083453
• (2025). 9780674362505, Harvard University Press. . ISBN 9780674362505

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External links

General background

• Greek Language, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
• The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway, useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
• Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, The Greek Language Portal, a portal for Greek language and linguistic education.
• The Perseus Project has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
• Ancient Greek Tutorials, Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley

Language learning

• target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Hellenistic Greek Lessons Greek-Language.com provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek.
• komvos.edu.gr, a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.
• New Testament Greek Three graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament
• Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece
• Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)
• USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course
• Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.

Dictionaries

• target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Greek Lexical Aids, descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print.
• The Greek Language Portal, dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern)
• scanned images from S. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary, 1910

Literature

• Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies, a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture
• Research lab of modern Greek philosophy, a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books

Categories: Graeco-phrygian, Fusional Languages, Greek Alphabet, Languages Of Albania, Languages Of Apulia, Languages Of Armenia, Languages Of Calabria, Languages Of Cyprus, Languages Of Georgia, Languages Of Greece, Languages Of Hungary, Languages Of Romania, Languages Of Sicily, Languages Of Turkey, Languages Of Ukraine, Subject–verb–object Languages

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